![]() ![]() In times of peace, and even in some periods of war, Muslim-Byzantine frontiers were regularly crossed for all kinds of purposes and pursuits. ![]() But one should always remember that the periods of war between the two sides were much shorter than the periods of truce and peaceful coexistence. During the eight hundred years after the early Islamic conquests, Muslims and Byzantines continued to confront each other, first in northern Syria and later, after the battle of Manzikert in the eleventh century, in Anatolia itself. ![]() Philosophy as such was never a pillar of Islamic thought yet, philosophical and logical notions of Greek origins were integrated into the Islamic legal theory ( usul al-fiqh ), 10 Islamic theology ( kalam ), 11 Islamic Sufism ( tasawwuf ), 12 and even the study of Arabic language. Philosophical discourse, on the other hand, diminished the role played by the philosophers in the development of classical Islamic culture and civilization. الإسلام والغرب: نحو عالم Civilization or Political: The Reality of the Present Tension between the Muslim World and the West ![]()
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